Three main topics considered for mitigating water supply risks are reviewed below. First is integrated water resources management, especially the need for artificial groundwater recharge. Second is renewable energy desalination. Third is the use of water pipelines to transport bulk water to regions and cities in need. These three topics of discussion are in addition to the water saving remedies available for the agricultural and industrial sectors.
Integrated Water Resources Management and Artificial Groundwater Recharge
Integrated water resources management actively promotes the sustainable use of water resources and their equitable supply among different consumer segments (i.e., agriculture, industry, municipalities). Integrated water resources management is coordinated by government and integrates key stakeholders (industry, consumer groups) involved in the management of water catchment, flood and drought control, and the environment generally.[i]
Integrated water resources management takes a holistic view of water basin resources, from the mountains and valleys to the coastal river mouth. Integrated water resources management embraces flood control and drought management and maximizes groundwater storage while ensuring the treatment of wastewater and the prevention of pollution.[ii],[iii],[iv],[v],[vi],[vii]
At the water basin level, it will become increasingly important to establish controls on water extractions by large water users, such as agriculture and industry. Policy implementation and the use of volume quotas and full economic pricing can be used to limit extractions, while promoting efficiency and innovation in water use. Price controls are not always easy to implement, because they have political consequences (in terms of voting, protests, etc.).[viii],[ix] However, when water is scarce and drought becomes extreme, compromises and solutions must be found.
Water flow and groundwater storage in a water basin are modified by dams high up at the headwaters, and by construction at the flood plain level. [x] Floodplain construction includes channelization, which creates strategically located waterways (i.e., canals, causeways) to control flooding and improve land drainage, and floodplain reclamation (i.e., landfill) which increases the usable land area, permitting greater urbanization and other changes in land use (i.e., roads, industrial parks).[xi]
The downside of flood prevention and floodplain reclamation is that they undermine the natural connection between a river and its floodplain. By eliminating the river-floodplain connection, ground water storage and the water basin’s ability to buffer drought are adversely impacted. Reconnecting rivers to flood plains and enabling water to enter natural waterways offers a means for increasing groundwater storage.[xii],[xiii]
Water basin managers, municipalities, and both large-scale and smallholder farmers are increasingly using artificial groundwater recharge to increase water stores.[xiv],[xv],[xvi] For large-scale groundwater recharge projects, expert decisions must be made concerning the best location.[xvii],[xviii],[xix]
A variety of surface structures are used for groundwater recharge. These improve surface water retention and its infiltration. They include low-level river and streambed dams, contour bunds (i.e., low level earth embankments following a land’s contour to hold back or slow water runoff), low level dams in gulleys, reservoirs, storage ponds, irrigation and drainage canals, as well as the terracing of hill slopes. Woodlands and riverside trees and vegetation (i.e., riparian buffers) also assist groundwater recharge.[xx],[xxi],[xxii]
Artificial groundwater recharge is increasingly being used for short- and long-term underground water storage. Artificial recharge utilizes permeable surface soils, trenches, or specially located well shafts to directly inject water into the aquifers.[xxiii],[xxiv] Groundwater recharge utilizes river and wastewater, as well as desalinated water, for the recharging process.[xxv]
Forests and woodlands provide a natural means of flood control, especially in the upper water basin and floodplains. Forests regulate storm discharge into rivers and control river flow rates, while increasing the duration of stream flow after rains cease. Forests also help recharge groundwater. Thus forests, and reforesting, provide many benefits—such as a source of renewable energy, a means of flood control and groundwater recharge, and ecosystem benefits (i.e., increasing biodiversity, oxygen production, carbon storage, etc.). These big benefits mean we must make reforestation a priority.
Flood control and prevention involves increasing the number of strategically located waterways to direct water away from urban and other areas, and the use of physical flood defenses to protect important areas. Flood defenses include physical structures like flood control dams in the upper catchment areas,[xxvi] weirs, flood banks, flood protection dikes, contour bunds, water detention basins, and reservoirs. Urban flood protection involves the use of green infrastructure to reduce water runoff and prevent flood control systems from being overwhelmed.[xxvii],[xxviii],[xxix]
Decentralized Water Supply Using Renewable Energy Desalination Systems
Do we really have a water shortage? Do we need to face water scarcity and shortages of supply?
We have options for meeting our water needs that go beyond the water cycle, water basin and river systems, and aquifers. With 97 percent of the world’s water supply residing in the oceans, and our ability to pipe water thousands of kilometers, the simple answer to the above questions is No in both cases.
In an ideal world, we would just need to separate the fresh water from seawater or brackish (i.e., estuary or river mouth) water, using renewable energy desalination systems, and then transport it to where it is needed using canals and pipelines. Pumping would be done with pumps powered by renewable energy.
With a sizable portion of the world’s population and the majority of the world’s largest cities located close to the coast, renewable energy desalination makes compelling sense. Renewable energy desalination offers coastal municipalities and industries a means for decentralizing their water supply while mitigating water scarcity.
Municipalities account for 70 percent of desalinated water use, while industries use about one-fifth.[xxx] Desalination is now an economically viable option for water supply, and is becoming more cost-competitive with other water sources, particularly where large-scale production facilities are located in proximity to renewable energy sources.[xxxi],[xxxii]
Desalination is presently used to supply about 1 percent of global fresh water, with renewable energy desalination supplying only a small fraction of this. Middle Eastern countries such as Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Kuwait,[xxxiii] as well as the USA,[xxxiv] Spain,[xxxv],[xxxvi] and China[xxxvii] are some of the largest users of desalination technologies. Some examples of small to medium-sized desalination plants are cited here for reference purposes.[xxxviii],[xxxix],[xl],[xli]
Seawater desalination accounts for most of global desalination capacity worldwide, with river and wastewater also being utilized in desalination systems.[xlii],[xliii] Brackish and river water desalination is a lower cost option compared with desalinating seawater, due to brackish water’s lower level of salinity.[xliv]
Desalination technologies mainly utilize semi-permeable membrane desalination processes such as reverse osmosis, or thermal desalination processes using evaporation and distillation processes, such as multi-stage flash and multi-effect distillation.[xlv],[xlvi]
Solar photovoltaic and wind-generated electricity are well suited to reverse osmosis processes, while concentrating solar power, geothermal, fossil fuel, and nuclear electricity and heat co-generation are useful for thermal desalination processes that vaporize the feed water to produce a purified water condensate.[xlvii],[xlviii],[xlix]
Solar photovoltaic reverse osmosis systems are highly scalable using bolt-on system additions to scale up water production, making them ideally suited for both small and large towns, and small cities.[l],[li] Solar stills and solar ponds offer a good solution for areas of low volume and low demand, such as small or remote coastal communities, and for use at home (see citations for homemade designs and design principles).[lii],[liii],[liv],[lv]
The shortcomings associated with renewable energy desalination (caused by the variability in the supply of energy) have made these desalinating systems less attractive when compared with fossil fuel-powered systems. However, advanced management practices now provide desalination plant operators with the ability to buffer the fluctuations in the supply of renewable energy, while extending the hours of daily water production.[lvi]
Bulk Water Transportation by Long-Distance Pipelines
It never ceases to amaze me how humans can with ingenuity and innovation find solutions to big problems or needs, if given sufficient time to prepare. Freshwater pipelines and cross-country canal systems transporting bulk water supplies from resource-rich regions (i.e., coastlines, rivers, mountains, and aquifers) hundreds or thousands of kilometers to where they are needed, would be an example of such ingenuity and innovation translated into action.
In China, the South-to-North Water Diversion Project will theoretically transport 45 billion cubic meters of water a year (i.e., the annual volume of the river Thames in England) across a waterway network of nearly 4,500 kilometers. This waterway network comprises giant canals, pipelines, aqueducts, and pumping stations, and crosses the Yangtze, Yellow, Huai, and Hai Rivers.[lvii]
Equally ambitious, the Trans-Africa Pipeline Project aims to deliver potable water for up to 30 million people in eleven African Sahel (i.e., the southern Sahara desert margin) countries. Two coastal solar power desalination plants in Mauritania and two on the Red Sea, plus land-based wind turbines, will pump 400,000 cubic meters of desalinated seawater per day inland along an 8,000km pipeline.[lviii]
The Great Manmade River of Libya is another of these grand projects undertaken by a government on behalf of its people. This pipeline transports 3.7 million cubic meters of water daily over 2,800 kilometers to Tripoli from deep underground aquifers. Likewise, the California Aqueduct transports bulk water from the Sierra Nevada Mountains and valleys over 640 kilometers away to Southern California, where it is badly needed.
These projects demonstrate great vision born from absolute necessity, as well as the sheer scale of what governments, stakeholders, and their industrial partners are prepared to take on to help their people. They demonstrate that the bulk transportation of water over great distances is eminently feasible. These projects also highlight the different sources of bulk water supply (oceans, rivers, aquifers, and mountains) that can be used to extract and then transport water using massive pipelines hundreds or thousands of kilometers in length.
The combination of coastal seawater and renewable energy, plus industry’s proven capability to build pipelines thousands of kilometers long, means we can solve water scarcity problems for coastal and inland cities, industries, and agriculture. These innovations could be used to eliminate human vulnerability to the water cycle and the solar phenomena that will influence it during this grand solar minimum.
Agricultural and Industrial Water Savings
The important water savings for the agriculture sector in times of severe drought affecting already stressed water basins is crop rotation away from non-food crops, biofuels, grain-fed livestock, and super-thirsty rice. Switching staple foods will no doubt represent a cultural challenge, especially in Asia where rice is a primary staple, and among the affluent who consume large quantities of meat.
In times of drought and increasing water scarcity, we should remember that animal-related products are also thirsty consumers of scarce water resources, which offers opportunities for saving water. In fact, the water requirement for producing one kilogram of meat is some 20–50 times higher than for producing the equivalent nutrition in crops for direct human consumption.[lix]
Principle areas for industrial action include improving efficiency of water use by reengineering products and processes. Reengineering aims to eliminate non-essential water use, while reducing the use of water in manufacturing and other industrial processes.[lx] Ensuring that manufacturing process water and wastewater is purified and recycled is a key part of sustainable industrial development, as well as preventing the pollution of groundwater and rivers. Industry, like agriculture, must ensure its leaky pipes are fixed to reduce losses.
Because energy production uses more water than any other industry sector, and industries are the largest consumer of electricity, other industries can help the energy sector reduce its water footprint, as well as their own, by switching to renewable energy. Vast quantities of fresh water are used annually in the inefficient production of energy and its conversion to electricity. This water is used mostly for extraction, production, conversion, and cooling processes.[lxi],[lxii],[lxiii] Renewable energy technologies eliminate water use during the generation of electricity, with the exception of concentrating solar power in which small quantities are used for cleaning reflectors.
[i] Muhammad Mizanur Rahaman and Olli Varis, 2005, “Integrated water resources management: evolution, prospects and future challenges.” Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy, 1:1, 15-21, DOI: 10.1080/15487733.2005.11907961.
[ii] Muhammad Mizanur Rahaman and Olli Varis, 2005, “Integrated water resources management: evolution, prospects and future challenges.” Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy, 1:1, 15-21, DOI: 10.1080/15487733.2005.11907961.
[iii] U.S. Government Global Water Strategy, 2017. https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1865/Global_Water_Strategy_2017_final_508v2.pdf.
[iv] Muhammad Mizanur Rahaman et al., “EU Water Framework Directive vs. Integrated Water Resources Management: The Seven Mismatches.” 565-575. Published online: 22 Jan 2007. https://doi.org/10.1080/07900620412331319199.
[v] European Commission. River Basin Management Plans available in each European River Basin District. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/participation/map_mc/map.htm. (Click on the country maps to review the River Basin Management Plans for each major European Water Basin).
[vi] Mark Giordano and Tushaar Shah, 2014, From IWRM back to integrated water resources management, International Journal of Water Resources Development, 30:3, 364-376. DOI: 10.1080/07900627.2013.851521.
[vii] Chay Asdak and Munawir, “Integrated Water Resources Conservation Management for a Sustainable Food Security.” Second International Conference on Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security: A Comprehensive Approach, KnE Life Sciences, 238–270. DOI 10.18502/kls.v2i6.1045.
[viii] Mark Giordano and Tushaar Shah, 2014, “From IWRM back to integrated water resources management.” International Journal of Water Resources Development, 30:3, 364-376. DOI: 10.1080/07900627.2013.851521.
[ix] Muhammad Mizanur Rahaman et al., “EU Water Framework Directive vs. Integrated Water Resources Management: The Seven Mismatches.” 565-575. Published online: 22 Jan 2007. https://doi.org/10.1080/07900620412331319199.
[x] Muhammad Mizanur Rahaman and Olli Varis, 2005, “Integrated water resources management: evolution, prospects and future challenges.” Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy, 1:1, 15-21, DOI: 10.1080/15487733.2005.11907961.
[xi] S. Hohensinner et al., 2018, “River Morphology, Channelization, and Habitat Restoration.” In: Schmutz S., Sendzimir J. (eds) Riverine Ecosystem Management. Aquatic Ecology Series, Volume 8. Springer, Cham. DOI https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73250-3_3.
[xii] E. Kiedrzyńska et al., “Sustainable floodplain management for flood prevention and water quality improvement.” M. Nat Hazards (2015) 76: 955. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-014-1529-1.
[xiii] S. Hohensinner et al., 2018, “River Morphology, Channelization, and Habitat Restoration.” In: Schmutz S., Sendzimir J. (eds) “Riverine Ecosystem Management.” Aquatic Ecology Series, Volume 8. Springer, Cham. DOI https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-73250-3_3.
[xiv] A. Nicol et al., (Eds.) 2015, “Water-smart agriculture in East Africa. Colombo, Sri Lanka.” International Water Management Institute (IWMI). CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE); Kampala,Uganda: Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere (CARE). 352p. doi: 10.5337/2015.203.
[xv] Chay Asdak and Munawir, “Integrated Water Resources Conservation Management for a Sustainable Food Security.” Second International Conference on Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security: A Comprehensive Approach, KnE Life Sciences, 238–270. DOI 10.18502/kls.v2i6.1045
[xvi] Bancy M. Mati, Working Paper 13. “100 Ways to Manage Water for Smallholder Agriculture in Eastern and Southern Africa A Compendium of Technologies and Practices.” March 2007. IMAWESA.
[xvii] Mahdavi A et al., “Identification of groundwater artificial recharge sites using Fuzzy logic: A case study of Shahrekord plain, Iran.” International magazine of geo-science publication, 2012; 1-14.
[xviii] Prasenjit Bhowmick et al., “A review on GIS based Fuzzy and Boolean logic modeling approach to identify the suitable sites for Artificial Recharge of Groundwater.” Sch. J. Eng. Tech., 2014; 2(3A):316-319.
[xix] H. Nasiri et al., “Determining the most suitable areas for artificial groundwater recharge via an integrated PROMETHEE II-AHP method in GIS environment (case study: Garabaygan Basin, Iran).” Environ Monit Assess (2013) 185: 707. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-012-2586-0.
[xx] Prasenjit Bhowmick et al., “A review on GIS based Fuzzy and Boolean logic modeling approach to identify the suitable sites for Artificial Recharge of Groundwater.” Sch. J. Eng. Tech., 2014; 2(3A):316-319.
[xxi] A. Nicol et al., (Eds.) 2015, “Water-smart agriculture in East Africa. Colombo, Sri Lanka.” International Water Management Institute (IWMI). CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE); Kampala,Uganda: Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere (CARE). 352p. doi: 10.5337/2015.203.
[xxii] Bancy M. Mati, “100 Ways to Manage Water for Smallholder Agriculture in Eastern and Southern Africa. A Compendium of Technologies and Practices.” March 2007. SWMnet Working Paper 13. IMAWESA.
[xxiii] The US Geological Survey. Groundwater Storage – The Water Cycle. https://water.usgs.gov/edu/watercyclegwstorage.html.
[xxiv] H. Bouwer, “Artificial recharge of groundwater: hydrogeology and engineering.” Hydrogeology Journal (2002) Volume 10, Issue 1, 121–142. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-001-0182-4.
[xxv] Takashi Asano, “Water Reuse via Groundwater Recharge.” International Review for Environmental Strategies (IRES) Volume 6, No. 2, 205 – 216, 2006.
[xxvi] “How a Watershed Flood Control Dam Works.” Oklahoma Conservation Commission. The USDA Watershed Program. https://www.lowellma.gov/DocumentCenter/View/1057
[xxvii] The US Environmental Protection Agency. Green Infrastructure. Manage Flood Risk. https://www.epa.gov/green-infrastructure/manage-flood-risk.
[xxviii] Hua-peng Qin et al., “The effects of low impact development on urban flooding under different rainfall characteristics.” Journal of Environmental Management (2013), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.08.026.
[xxix] The US Environmental Protection Agency. Green Infrastructure. What is Green Infrastructure? https://www.epa.gov/green-infrastructure/what-green-infrastructure.
[xxx] S. Lattemann et al., “Global Desalination Situation.” Sustainability Science and Engineering, Volume 2, 2010, 7-39. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1871-2711(09)00202-5.
[xxxi] Noreddine Ghaffour, et al. “Technical review and evaluation of the economics of water desalination: Current and future challenges for better water supply sustainability.” http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2012.10.015.
[xxxii] Ali A. Al-Karaghouli and L.L. Kazmerski, 2011, “Renewable Energy Opportunities in Water Desalination, Desalination.” Michael Schorr, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/14779. Available from: https://www.intechopen.com/books/desalination-trends-and-technologies/renewable-energy-opportunities-in-water-desalination.
[xxxiii] Ali A. Al-Karaghouli and L.L. Kazmerski, 2011, “Renewable Energy Opportunities in Water Desalination, Desalination.” Michael Schorr, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/14779. Available from: https://www.intechopen.com/books/desalination-trends-and-technologies/renewable-energy-opportunities-in-water-desalination.
[xxxiv] Mike Mickley, 2013, “US Municipal Desalination Plants: Number, Types, Locations, Sizes, and Concentrate Management Practices.” IDA Journal of Desalination and Water Reuse, 4:1, 44-51, DOI: 10.1179/ida.2012.4.1.44.
[xxxv] H. March et al., “The End of Scarcity? Water Desalination as The New Cornucopia for Mediterranean Spain.” Journal of Hydrology (2014). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.04.023.
[xxxvi] J. Aparicio et al., “Economic evaluation of small desalination plants from brackish aquifers.” Application to Campo de Cartagena (SE Spain). Desalination 411 (2017) 38–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2017.02.004.
[xxxvii] Xiang Zheng et al., “Seawater desalination in China: Retrospect and prospect.” April 2014. The Chemical Engineering Journal 242:404–413. DOI: 10.1016/j.cej.2013.12.
[xxxviii] Ras Al Khair Desalination Plant. https://www.water-technology.net/projects/ras-al-khair-desalination-plant/.
[xxxix] Magtaa Reverse Osmosis Desalination Plant, Algeria. https://www.water-technology.net/projects/magtaa-desalination/.
[xl] Adelaide Desalination Plant. https://www.sawater.com.au/community-and-environment/our-water-and-sewerage-systems/water-treatment/desalination/adelaide-desalination-plant-adp.
[xli] Sorek, The World’s Largest and Most Advanced SWRO Desalination Plant. http://www.ide-tech.com/blog/b_case_study/sorek-project/.
[xlii] Ali A. Al-Karaghouli and L.L. Kazmerski, 2011, “Renewable Energy Opportunities in Water Desalination, Desalination.” Michael Schorr, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/14779. Available from: https://www.intechopen.com/books/desalination-trends-and-technologies/renewable-energy-opportunities-in-water-desalination.
[xliii] V.G. Gude, “Energy storage for desalination processes powered by renewable energy and waste heat sources.” Appl Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.06.061.
[xliv] Noreddine Ghaffour et al., “Technical review and evaluation of the economics of water desalination: Current and future challenges for better water supply sustainability.” http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2012.10.015.
[xlv] Ali A. Al-Karaghouli and L.L. Kazmerski, 2011, “Renewable Energy Opportunities in Water Desalination, Desalination.” Michael Schorr, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/14779. Available from: https://www.intechopen.com/books/desalination-trends-and-technologies/renewable-energy-opportunities-in-water-desalination.
[xlvi] V.G. Gude, “Energy storage for desalination processes powered by renewable energy and waste heat sources.” Appl Energy (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.06.061.
[xlvii] A. Mohamed et al., “Renewable Energy Powered Desalination Systems: Technologies and Economics – State of the Art.” Twelfth International Water Technology Conference, IWTC12 2008, Alexandria, Egypt 1099.
[xlviii] Ali A. Al-Karaghouli and L.L. Kazmerski, 2011, “Renewable Energy Opportunities in Water Desalination, Desalination.” Michael Schorr, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/14779. Available from: https://www.intechopen.com/books/desalination-trends-and-technologies/renewable-energy-opportunities-in-water-desalination.
[xlix] E.R. Shouman et al., 2015, “Economics of Renewable Energy for Water Desalination in Developing Countries.” International Journal of Economics and Management Sciences 5:305. doi:10.4172/21626359.1000305.
[l] Chennan Li et al., “Solar assisted sea water desalination: A review.” Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 19(2013)136–163. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.04.059.
[li] Ali A. Al-Karaghouli and L.L. Kazmerski, 2011, “Renewable Energy Opportunities in Water Desalination, Desalination.” Michael Schorr, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/14779. Available from: https://www.intechopen.com/books/desalination-trends-and-technologies/renewable-energy-opportunities-in-water-desalination.
[lii] Manchanda and Kumar, “A comprehensive decade review and analysis on designs and performance parameters of passive solar still.” Renewables (2015) 2:17. DOI 10.1186/s40807-015-0019-8.
[liii] Rasika R Dahake et al., “A Review on Solar Still Water Purification.” International Journal for Innovative Research in Science & Technology Volume 3 Issue 9 2017 59-63.
[liv] Hikmet Ş. Aybar, “A review of desalination by solar still.” May 2007. NATO Security through Science Series C: Environmental Security. In book: Solar Desalination for the 21st Century. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4020-5508-9_15.
[lv] A.Z.A. Saifullaha et al., “Solar pond and its application to desalination.” Asian Transactions on Science & Technology (ATST ISSN: 2221-4283) Volume 02 Issue 03.
[lvi] Ange Abena Mbarga et al., “Integration of Renewable Energy Technologies With Desalination.” Current Sustainable Renewable Energy Rep (2014) 1:11–18. DOI 10.1007/s40518-013-0002-1.
[lvii] China South–North Water Transfer Project Official Website. http://www.nsbd.gov.cn/zx/english/
[lviii] The Trans Africa Pipeline. http://transafricapipeline.org.
[lix] David Pimentel et al., “Water Resources: Agricultural and Environmental Issues.” BioScience, Volume 54, Issue 10, 1 October 2004, 909–918, https://doi.org/10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054[0909:WRAAEI]2.0.CO;2.
[lx] European Commission. Enterprise and Industry. Sustainable Industry – Going for Growth & Resource Efficiency. Report Authors. Authors: Koen Rademaekers, Sahar Samir Zaki, Matthew Smith. Ref. Ares(2014)1209330 – 16/04/2014. https://ec.europa.eu/docsroom/documents/5188/attachments/1/translations/en/renditions/pdf.
[lxi] European Commission. Water use in industry. Cooling for electricity production dominates water use in industry. http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Archive:Water_use_in_industry.
[lxii] E S Spang et al., “The water consumption of energy production: an international comparison.” Environmental Research Letters, 9 (2014) 105002 (14pp) doi:10.1088/1748-9326/9/10/105002.
[lxiii] Erik Mielke et al., “Water Consumption of Energy Resource Extraction, Processing, and Conversion, A review of the literature for estimates of water intensity of energy-resource extraction, processing to fuels, and conversion to electricity.” Energy Technology Innovation Policy Discussion Paper No. 2010-15, Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, Harvard Kennedy School, Harvard University, October 2010.
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